Circular economy behaviours in Scotland: Recycling, repair and disposal

A circular economy is part of the solution to the global climate emergency, ensuring that nothing goes to waste and everything has value. Previous research has shown that Scotland’s economy is far from circular, with people in Scotland consuming more than double the sustainable level of material use required for a high quality of life. It is clear that action is required to reduce consumption, to extend the life of consumer goods, increase their reuse and ensure that value is extracted from material components at the end of life.

The Scottish Government is committed to delivering a more circular economy, and is taking action to improve re-use, recycling and repair. Measures include the proposed charge on single use drinks cups, the upcoming deposit return scheme for single-use drinks containers, and proposed measures to increase the repair and reuse of items. Successful delivery of these policies is, however, reliant on action across a number of levels, most notably from consumers who will be required to change their behaviours.

To support the delivery of circular economy policy, Consumer Scotland undertook survey research to identify the key factors that affect consumer willingness and ability to engage in specific circular economy measures, and how barriers to consumer engagement differ across demographics. This research builds on our previous work by Consumer Scotland and other stakeholders. It provides further insight on the factors which can promote or reduce consumer engagement with some of the specific measures that the Scottish Government has committed to introducing with the aim of transitioning to a circular economy, and identifying any barriers to effective implementation of these measures.[1]

Frequency of repair, recycling and throwing away

Within a circular economy, the ideal waste hierarchy is for repair behaviours to sit above recycling and throwing away to be a last resort. However, our research found recycling, rather than repairing or throwing away, is currently the dominant consumer behaviour in Scotland for all material types.

Recycling is particularly common for high volume items that can be recycled at home, such as plastic bottles and cans (82% reported frequently recycling these items) and food waste (53% regularly recycle).

Recycling is less frequent where products are more challenging to recycle or where these habits are less strong, most notably for clothing with significant damage (36% regularly recycle) and small electrical items with either minor or significant damage (for each category 42% regularly recycle).

Consumers in Scotland report undertaking repair of items less frequently than recycling. Levels of repair vary according to the severity of damage, declining as the level of damage increases. Clothing with minor damage had the highest reported level of repair, with 33% of consumers stating that they do this, and the lowest level was small electrical items with significant damage, at 9%.

Consumer behaviour also varies notably by age. Younger adults more likely to report throwing items away and older adults more likely to report repairing.

In order to move consumer behaviour up the waste hierarchy, policy measures in Scotland should focus on moving beyond well-established recycling behaviours, towards supporting increased levels of reuse and repair. Measures must tackle common barriers and enable consumers not only to consume less, but also repair and reuse items more frequently. To support this, policymakers should utilise Consumer Scotland’s Consumer Framework for Addressing Climate Change[2] to assess the impact of circular economy policies and ensure that any barriers to consumer participation are fully considered and addressed.

Although throwing items away is not the most frequently reported consumer behaviour for any material type, it is still taking place frequently. Throwing away is most frequently reported for clothing with significant damage (26% frequently doing this). However, consumers also report discarding items for which recycling options are widely available. Around a quarter of consumers in Scotland report that they frequently place plastic bottles and cans (24%) and food waste (23%) into general waste.

Consumers must be able to understand what items can be repaired, re-used and recycled and where and how they can do this. To help avoid both contamination of waste streams or items being unnecessarily landfilled, we recommend that the Scottish Government delivers a targeted behaviour change campaign, focussing on materials which are currently more likely to be incorrectly disposed of via landfill.

Perceived barriers to recycling and repair

Barriers to recycling that consumers in Scotland experience vary substantially by item type, with small electrical items standing out as the most challenging to recycle, and plastic bottles and cans the least. For most items, the most common barrier to recycling is the lack of a suitable local service or facility, followed by uncertainty about where or how to recycle. However, consumer barriers are slightly different for food waste, and plastic bottles or cans, where a lack of time or inconvenience are more prominent challenges.

The barriers that consumers face to repairing items are high for both small electrical items and for clothing and textiles, with a large share of consumers reporting at least one barrier to repair. Across all demographic groups, the most common barrier that consumers experience in repairing items is cost. Many respondents say that repairing costs more than buying new. Knowledge and access barriers are also prominent, with many respondents reporting that they do not know how to repair items or where to get them repaired.

To improve recycling and repair behaviours, consumers must also be able to access facilities in a convenient way. The Scottish Government should act to ensure that consumers across Scotland have equitable access to repair, reuse and recycling facilities. This should include action to:

• Assess where repair and recycling facilities are currently unavailable or sparsely provided and consider allocating local or national funding streams to support the startup or scaling up of services to fill these gaps
• Promote available repair and recycling facilities, through targeted information or public awareness campaigns to raise awareness as part of wider net zero communications work. This campaign should include a focus on ensuring that these behaviours are ingrained with young people
• Identify a range of measures to increase availability of recycling infrastructure to support increased consumer engagement. This could include expanding materials collected at kerbside and increasing provision of hubs at local recycling facilities or in community centres such as libraries or other municipal buildings
• Develop and implement the upcoming Code of Practice on household recycling in a way that meets the diverse needs of consumers in a range of circumstances, such as those living in flats and those in rural areas
• Address the disparities in food waste collection through the review of the rural food waste exemption, with revised collections in place by the end of 2027

Successfully increasing the number, and geographic coverage, of repair businesses in Scotland will be key to supporting consumer take-up of these practices. Action should focus on providing targeted business development support to these businesses and working with partners to ensure consumers can gain skills to help them repair and reuse items. 

Consumer awareness and confidence in reuse and repair practices must also be improved if participation is to be increased.  The Scottish Government should put in place measures to increase consumer confidence in the quality and cost-effectiveness of repairs and to raise awareness of these models.

Policy scenario: A 20p Deposit Return Scheme

In addition to general questions about recycling, repair and throw away behaviours, we also asked respondents to consider the impact of two specific schemes currently under consideration by Scottish Government. When asked about how they would engage with a deposit return scheme where a 20p deposit is added to the price of plastic bottles and cans, two thirds of consumers in Scotland said that they would frequently return their container, including just over a third saying they always would. However, willingness to engage with such a scheme is primarily shaped by convenience and how easily returns can be integrated into everyday routines.

Scenarios that minimise additional effort, such as proximity of return points or the ability to return containers as part of regular trips, are associated with higher stated engagement, while time, effort and uncertainty are the main deterrents.

As the practical demands of returning containers rise, certain groups, including older adults, people with limiting long-term health conditions, and those with fewer transport options appear more likely to face barriers and less likely to engage.

For the upcoming deposit return scheme to have the best chance of success, it must be designed in a way that addresses consumer priorities and barriers to take-up. To maximise take-up the scheme must prioritise:

• Ease and speed of return of materials
• The ability to integrate returning containers into everyday consumer routines
• Certainty for consumers about scheme rules

Policy scenario 2: A 25p Charge on Single-Use Cups

When asked how their behaviour might change if a 25p charge were introduced on single‑use takeaway cups, around 48% of consumers in Scotland who currently purchase takeaway drinks anticipate maintaining or increasing their purchasing frequency (40% no change, 8% buy more), while 45% expect to reduce or stop it (28% buy fewer, 17% stop buying), indicating mixed behavioural intentions.

Consumers from particular demographic groups were more likely to anticipate stopping purchases – most notably those with long-term health conditions were more likely than those without to anticipate they would stop purchasing takeaway drinks altogether.

Nearly half (47%) of regular purchasers said they would frequently bring a reusable cup if a charge was introduced. A further 23% say they would do so sometimes. Only 23% of regular purchasers say they would rarely or never bring a reusable cup. As with purchase behaviours, we saw some demographic differences in anticipated behaviour, with older age groups and those in rural areas the least likely to predict they would make frequent use of reusable cups.

Due to the demographic differences identified, we recommend that, if the Scottish Government proceeds with implementing a charge on single-use cups, the impact on consumers in vulnerable circumstances should be fully considered through robust stakeholder engagement and impact assessments, to ensure that those who are least able to pay are not disproportionately impacted.

Our recommendations

We recommend that policymakers should utilise Consumer Scotland’s policymakers toolkit to assess the impact of circular economy policies on consumers, including those in vulnerable circumstances, and ensure that the barriers the consumer participation are fully considered and addressed.

We recommend that the Scottish Government delivers a targeted consumer behaviour change campaign focussing on materials which are currently more likely to be incorrectly disposed of via landfill. This campaign should focus on the provision of clear information about:

• the benefits of repair and reuse practices, such as saving money and supporting the local economy
• the availability of repair, reuse and recycling facilities for these items
• correct disposal options for items such as single-use cups, textiles and electrical items

We recommend that the Scottish Government should put in place measures to:

• encourage repair businesses to provide consumers with a warranty on repaired items to encourage consumer confidence in and use of these services
• raise consumer awareness of their rights across these new and emerging markets

We recommend that the Scottish Government should act to ensure that repair, reuse and recycling facilities are accessible and available for consumers across Scotland.  The Scottish Government should work with partners such as local authorities, consumer bodies and Zero Waste Scotland to:

• Assess where facilities are currently unavailable or sparsely provided and consider allocating local or national funding streams to support the startup or scaling up of services to fil these gaps
• Identify a range of measures to increase availability of recycling infrastructure so support increased consumer engagement
• Develop and implement the upcoming Code of Practice on household recycling in a way that meets the diverse needs of consumers in a range of circumstances
• Address the disparities in food waste collection through the review of the rural food waste exemption, the intervention plan on household food waste reduction behaviour change, detailed in the Circular Economy and Waste Routemap
• Promote available repair and recycling facilities, through targeted information or public awareness campaigns to raise awareness as part of wider net zero communications work

We recommend that the Scottish Government works with stakeholders such as Circular Communities Scotland to provide targeted small business development support to repair businesses.

We recommend that the design of the DRS scheme maintains a clear focus on making access as convenient as possible and ensuring that and the information surrounding its use is clear and consistent.

If the Scottish Government proceeds with implementing a charge on single-use cups, we recommend that the impact on consumers in vulnerable circumstances is fully considered through robust stakeholder engagement and impact assessments, to ensure that those who are least able to pay are not disproportionately impacted.

We recommend that the Scottish Government works with industry and other partners to provide consumers, and businesses, with clear and consistent messaging about the appropriate disposal of single-use cups.

We recommend that the Scottish Government should also use other methods to take action on single-use cups, including:

• Working with manufacturers to drive improvements in materials used for single-use cups
• Facilitating greater consumer awareness about the impact of single-use cups and reduction in consumption through sustained behaviour change campaigns
• Supporting further development and trials of cup hire and take back schemes at both a local and national to reduce the use of single-use cups

Introduction

Scotland’s transition to a circular economy is essential to addressing the global climate emergency, and shifting away from the long established “make, use, dispose” model of consumption towards a more sustainable system. A circular economy aims to ensure that nothing goes to waste and that materials are kept in use for as long as possible through practices such as reuse, repair and recycling.

However, evidence suggests Scotland is currently only 1.3% circular, with more than 98% of materials derived from virgin resources.[3] Moving towards circularity could reduce carbon emissions in Scotland by up to 43%.[4]

The importance of the issue is reflected within the evolving legislative landscape in Scotland. The Circular Economy (Scotland) Act 2024 establishes a statutory framework requiring the Scottish Government to publish a circular economy strategy, set circular economy targets, and take actions to reduce waste. The Circular Economy and Waste Route Map to 2030 sets strategic direction for reducing emissions associated with materials use, emphasising the importance of shifting consumer behaviours towards prevention, reuse, repair and high quality recycling.

Consumers are at the heart of the circular economy challenge. While recycling is now well established for many materials, this alone is insufficient to meet Scotland’s ambitions. Repair and reuse behaviours remain less common, and consumers face financial, practical and informational barriers that limit their ability to change habits. Without appropriate support, policies designed to encourage consumers to engage in circular economy behaviours may lead to consumer detriment in the form of increased costs, inconvenience or lack of access to suitable facilities, undermining both individual wellbeing and policy effectiveness.

To support policymaking in this evolving landscape, Consumer Scotland – the statutory, independent body representing consumers in Scotland – undertook a representative survey of 1,000 consumers in Scotland, to understand their attitudes and behaviours in relation to various circular economy behaviours.

The overarching aim of the research is to understand the factors that promote or reduce consumer engagement with circular economy measures. The survey aims to:

• explore consumer engagement with behaviours such as repairing goods, recycling textiles and electricals, disposing of food waste, and using reusable cups or the upcoming deposit return scheme
• identify practical, informational and attitudinal barriers to engagement, and how these vary across demographic groups
• provide insight on how forthcoming policy measures can be designed in ways that maximise participation and minimise consumer detriment

The research focuses on materials identified by the Scottish Government as priorities due to their environmental impact:

• textiles
• small electrical items
• food waste
• plastic bottles and cans
• single-use cups

It also examines consumer attitudes to two specific policy proposals:

• the upcoming deposit return scheme for single use drinks containers
• a potential charge on single use takeaway cups

By providing an evidence-based understanding of consumer experiences and constraints, this report aims to support the development of circular economy policies that are accessible, equitable and effective for consumers in Scotland.

Transitioning to a circular economy

A circular economy is part of the solution to the global climate emergency, ensuring that nothing goes to waste and that everything has value. Zero Waste Scotland describes it as adopting 'make, use, remake' behaviours rather than 'make, use, dispose'.[5] 

The Circularity Gap Report suggests that Scotland is currently only 1.3% 'circular', with more than 98% of materials extracted from virgin resources. Around four-fifths (82%) of Scotland’s carbon footprint comes from the products and services we manufacture, use, and throw away, and action to increase circularity could help to reduce emissions in Scotland by up to 43%. 

On average, people in Scotland consume more than double the sustainable level of material use which evidence suggests is required to allow a high quality of life - around 8 tonnes per person per year.[6] Action is required to reduce consumption, to extend the life of consumer goods, increase their reuse and ensure that value is extracted from material components at the end of life.

Transitioning to a more circular economy can bring many positive impacts, including reducing waste and pollution, conserving resources, creating jobs and fostering economic growth, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, improving social outcomes and fostering innovation.[7]

The Scottish Government has committed to delivering a more circular economy and taking action on a range of products and materials, including:

• tackling the problem of single-use cups
• delivering a deposit return scheme for plastic bottles and cans
• improving recycling and repair of a range of materials, such as electrical items, textiles and food

Delivering this objective depends on action across a number of levels - government, businesses, communities and consumers.

Supporting consumers to understand the changes that are required, and putting the right mechanisms in place to enable them to change consumption habits, will be critical to the transition to a circular economy. Our previous research has shown that consumers need more leadership and support from policy makers to create an enabling environment where sustainable choices are more convenient and affordable, turning these into the default choices.[8]

If consumers are not sufficiently supported to engage with the transition to a circular economy, then it will be difficult to achieve the intended benefits. Interventions may instead risk causing consumer detriment, such as:

• increased cost,
• increased inconvenience,
• poor protection from bad actors,
• limited redress
• inability to access products that meet consumer needs

Policy makers require a clear understanding of the needs and priorities of consumers to ensure that future legislation and policy have a strong focus on consumer needs, impacts and priorities. We therefore sought to support policy makers by undertaking specific survey research on consumer behaviours around recycling, reuse and repair and barriers to engagement.

Impactful materials and the circular economy

Zero Waste Scotland’s Scottish Waste Environmental Footprint Tool has identified textiles, food, and waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as three of the waste types that contribute the most to climate change. Food waste is the largest contributor to biodiversity loss, while textiles, food and WEEE are the most significant contributors to air pollution and water use impacts.[9] We were guided by this analysis in  focusing on these items alongside plastic bottles and cans (commonly recycled) and takeaway cups (the subject of a specific policy change) in our research which contributes to an existing extensive evidence base on impactful materials and the circular economy.

This evidence base includes:

• A range of reports produced by Zero Waste Scotland relating to textiles, including the Product Stewardship Considerations for Textiles in Scotland report which included insight on textiles purchase frequency and disposal approaches including awareness of recycling options for textile products[10] and insight into second hand shopping, covering motivators and barriers on second hand purchasing, rental and repair.[11]
• A number of reports on textiles produced by the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) , including their Displacement Rates Untangled report, which provides insight into the impact of a range of circular business models on stopping the purchase of new clothes, and the UK Textiles Pact Annual Progress Report, which provides insight into textiles industry progress with reducing environmental impact.[12] [13]
• A substantial volume of research produced by Zero Waste Scotland on food waste, including a report on understanding values and belief changes in relation to food waste behaviours, exploring how food waste beliefs change over time and how people frame understanding of food waste in the context of wider environmental issues and considering the role of  frugality in shaping values and beliefs.[14] Zero Waste Scotland has also produced a report on trialling recycling interventions to increase engagement and change behaviours with household food waste.[15]
• A range of reports by WRAP on food waste, including research on the volume of food waste produced in the UK and reasons, patterns and opportunities for change in UK household food waste.[16] 
• A rapid review by the Expert Panel on Environmental Charging and Other Measures on charging for disposable coffee cups and other waste minimisation measure in 2019. The report recommended the introduction of a national charge for single-use beverage cups.[17]
• Research by Zero Waste Scotland on single-use cups which focussed on perceptions of single-use items and measures to tackle them. This research found over half of respondents were in favour of additional measures to reduce single-use cups, with 60% saying they would buy fewer drinks in single-use cups if these were charged for and 74% said a single-use cups charge would encourage them to use a reusable cup more.[18]
• Research on Deposit Return Schemes, including UK level research by Reloop into levels of support and perceptions of responsibility for recycling and levels of and motivation for support for a Deposit Return Scheme, which found that over two thirds of respondents were supportive of a Deposit Return Scheme.[19]
• Reports by Zero Waste Scotland  on recycling infrastructure, including on the feasibility of introducing new kerbside collections for flexible plastics, textiles, small WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), and household batteries across Scotland, highlighting the impact of introducing these measures, estimating that the combined collections of textiles, small WEEE, and batteries could divert 1,126 tonnes of waste annually, with carbon savings of 8,528 tonnes CO₂e.[20]
• A survey by Zero Waste Scotland on public attitudes towards recycling with the aim to shape a more user-friendly recycling system. The research aims to understand barriers such as convenience, awareness and motivation. The research found that recycling behaviours are driven by habit and routine and that many respondents feel under-informed about waste disposal, what is recyclable and what happens to recycling after collection.[21]

From examining this wealth of existing evidence, we identified that more detailed insight on the range of factors which might promote or reduce consumer engagement with specific recycling, reuse and repair measures was required. Identifying and tackling barriers to the effective implementation of measures will be critical to the transition to a circular economy for Scotland.

Legislative context

Action on delivering a circular economy and reducing emissions associated with waste is driven by the waste hierarchy, a framework to guide the overall approach to managing Scotland's waste. The waste hierarchy identifies the prevention of waste as the highest priority, followed by reuse, recycling, recovery of other value such as energy, with disposal as the least desirable option.[22] Supporting consumers to buy and waste less and to move their actions further up the waste hierarchy will help to reduce the carbon footprint of people in Scotland.

The Circular Economy (Scotland) Act 2024 sets the legislative framework and requires the Scottish Government to take certain actions to help develop a circular economy.[23] This includes publishing a circular economy strategy, developing circular economy targets and reducing waste.

Regarding waste, the Scottish Government has:

Consulted on changes to waste management services[24], including on the current rural food waste exemption, where some rural areas are exempt from having to provide a food waste collection service

Consulted on implementing a charge for single-use disposable beverage cups in 2024. While not implemented at this time, the Scottish Government is working with stakeholders to further develop its approach to single-use cups, including through the Single-Use Disposable Cups Charge Advisory Group[25]

Included waste policies in consultations on its Circular Economy Strategy and its draft Climate Change Plan [26] [27]

Published its Circular Economy and Waste Routemap to 2030, which aims to set the strategic direction for Scotland’s circular economy, accelerate sustainable use of resources across the waste hierarchy and reduce emissions associated with resources and waste.[28]

Research aims

In order to design effective circular economy policies that deliver better outcomes for consumers in Scotland, we need to understand consumer views and behaviours. The aim of this research is to improve understanding of the factors that promote or reduce consumer engagement with specific policy measures that contribute to a more circular economy, such as repairing goods, recycling textiles at end of life, disposing of food waste, using a reusable cup and participating in a deposit return scheme.

The materials that this research focused on were selected due to their inclusion in the Circular Economy and Waste Routemap and draft Circular Economy Strategy and being identified as priorities for the Scottish Government due to their significant environmental impact. The policy measures examined in this research mirror the upcoming deposit return scheme for cans and plastic bottles and a proposed charge on single-use cups consulted on by the Scottish Government.

This research builds on our previous work,[29] providing further insight on the factors which might promote or reduce consumer engagement with some of the measures that the Scottish Government has committed to introducing with the aim of transitioning to a circular economy.

This research had several core objectives:

• To explore consumer engagement with behaviours central to the circular economy, including repairing household items, recycling textiles and small electrical goods, disposing of food waste, using reusable cups, and taking part in a deposit return scheme
• To identify the nature of the barriers, consumers face to recycling or repairing items, whether they relate to convenience, lack of access or awareness, attitudes towards recycle/repair etc
• To examine how these barriers differ across demographic groups, recognising that age, income, long-term limiting health conditions, location and other circumstances shape consumers’ ability to engage

Methodology

Consumer Scotland commissioned IFF Research to undertake a survey exploring consumer engagement with circular economy measures, focusing on some of the areas that the Scottish Government has committed to action on.

Building on our previous research, this work provides more detailed insight on the factors which might promote or reduce consumer engagement with specific recycling, reuse and repair measures. It identifies barriers to effective implementation of measures, including the proposed charge on single-use drinks cups, the upcoming deposit return scheme, and measures to increase levels of repair.

The research incorporated survey questions into Yonder Consulting’s Scottish omnibus, a nationally representative online survey of Scottish adults.

Fieldwork took place between 3rd and 10th November 2025, with a total sample size of 1,007 adults aged 18 and over. The survey was conducted online and weighted by age, gender, and region to ensure findings are representative of the Scottish population.

Across all item types, recycling is the most frequently reported behaviour by consumers in Scotland.  Repair is reported less frequently and it declines as the severity of damage to the item increases.

Reported behaviours also vary most notably by age, particularly for throwing away and repair, with younger adults more likely to report throwing items away and older adults more likely to report repairing.

To understand how people manage items at the end of their useful life, our survey asked respondents how often they recycle, repair (or have repaired), and throw away certain items in general waste. We covered a range of products, including clothing and textiles, small electrical items, food waste, plastic bottles and cans, and single-use cups.

For ease, percentages of those saying they do an activity “always” or “very often” have been aggregated under “frequently” while “rarely” and “never” responses have been aggregated under “infrequently”. The findings are based on self-reported behaviour, which may be influenced by recall and how respondents interpret terms such as “recycle” or “repair”. Nonetheless, we consider that they are indicative of general behaviour.

For most items, the most frequently reported barrier is the lack of a suitable local service or facility, followed by uncertainty about where or how to recycle. This indicates that both service availability and information gaps limit recycling.

Food waste differs from other materials, with a relatively higher share of respondents reporting a lack of interest in recycling, while barriers for plastic bottles and cans are comparatively low and relate more to convenience than access or knowledge.

Respondents were asked to think specifically about occasions when they do not recycle and to indicate the main reasons why. The response options focused on practical, knowledge-related and attitudinal barriers, such as the availability of suitable facilities, understanding of how or where to recycle, and issues of time or convenience. As with all questions of this type, the findings are based on self-reported perceptions and behaviours. They therefore describe how people understand and explain their own recycling decisions, which may not always align perfectly with local service provision or observed behaviour in practice.

The barriers that consumers in Scotland face to repairing items are high for both small electrical items and for clothing and textiles, with a large share of consumers reporting at least one barrier to repair.

Across all demographic groups, the most commonly reported barrier that consumers experience is cost. Many consumers say that repairing an item costs more than buying new. Unlike recycling, where cost is rarely a direct barrier, repair decisions involve a clear financial comparison for consumers in Scotland, and this pattern is consistent across age and income groups.

Knowledge and access barriers are also prominent, with many consumers reporting that they do not know how to repair items or where to get them repaired. These barriers are reported more frequently by younger adults.

Differences by age and income are mainly reflected in knowledge, confidence, time and trust-related barriers, rather than in levels of interest in repair or beliefs about its environmental value. As with recycling, attitudinal resistance to repair is low across groups, with only small proportions saying they are not interested in repairing or that repair does not help the environment.

Consumers were asked about barriers to repairing items, allowing us to explore the practical, knowledge-related and attitudinal factors that may limit uptake of repair, even where consumers broadly support the aim of reducing waste.[2] The analysis of barriers to repair focuses on small electrical and clothing and textiles items only.

We asked consumers to anticipate their likely response to the introduction of a 20p deposit return scheme for plastic bottles and cans as the Scottish Government is actively developing a scheme to be introduced in October 2027.

We found that willingness to return containers under a deposit return scheme is primarily shaped by convenience and how easily returns can be integrated into everyday routines.

Scenarios that minimise additional effort (e.g. nearby return points or the ability to return containers alongside regular shopping trips) are consistently associated with higher stated engagement, while time, effort and uncertainty act as the main deterrents to consumers’ participation.

Differences between demographic groups are generally limited when returning containers is easy but become more pronounced as effort or complexity increases.

As the practical demands of returning containers rise, certain groups of consumers, including older adults, people with long-term limiting health condition, and those with fewer transport options appear more likely to face barriers.

To understand how people might engage with a 20p deposit return scheme for plastic bottles and cans, we asked them how likely they would be to return empty containers under a range of different scenarios. These scenarios varied in terms of convenience, effort and certainty (for example distance to the return point, whether returns could be combined with shopping trips, waiting times, and clarity about which containers would be accepted). This approach allows us to identify the factors most likely to encourage or discourage participation in the scheme.

When asked about how they would engage with a deposit return scheme where a 20p deposit is added to the price of plastic bottles and cans, there were a range of factors that impacted on consumers’ ability or willingness to engage with a scheme. Engagement with a scheme was likely to be higher when returning containers was convenient and could be easily integrated into daily life. When considering implementation of the scheme, including rules around exemptions, consideration should be given to these key motivators and barriers.

What encourages people to return their containers

Local access is strongly linked to higher participation. 85% of consumers said they would be likely to return containers if a return point was within a five-minute walk, with this falling to 61% if it was within a 15-minute walk. This indicates that likelihood of returning declines as the time and effort required increases, highlighting the importance of nearby return points.

Returns are more likely when they can be combined with existing routines. 84% of consumers said they would be likely to return containers when this could be done as part of a normal shopping trip. This suggests that integrating returns into journeys people already make could help reduce friction and support uptake.

Batch returning is more likely. Many people indicated they would prefer to save up their containers and return them in one go. For example, 76% say they would return more than 10 containers compared with only 35% who would return 1 to 2 containers. This is probably because people want the return to feel worth the amount of time and effort involved.

We also asked consumers to anticipate their likely response to the introduction of a 25p charge on single-use cups as the Scottish Government continues to consider whether or not to introduce such a scheme.

The most common expected response is no change in purchasing behaviour, although around half of regular takeaway drink purchasers say they would either reduce or stop buying drinks in single-use cups. Nearly half of regular purchasers say they would frequently bring a reusable cup if the charge were introduced, suggesting that behavioural change is more likely to take the form of switching behaviour rather than complete avoidance.

Responses vary slightly by demographic group, with those with limiting long-term health conditions more likely to anticipate stopping purchases. Younger, working-age adults predict they will be more responsive to the charge by bringing a reusable cup.

Consumers were asked how their behaviour might change if a 25p charge were introduced on single‑use takeaway cups.[4] Two separate questions were used to capture different aspects of possible behaviour change:

• A question on how the charge would affect their purchasing behaviour specifically
• A question on how often they would be willing to bring a reusable cup instead

Expectations of the impact on single-use cup purchases are split

Among the 72% of respondents who regularly purchase takeaway drinks, views on the impact of a 25p single‑use cup charge were mixed. Around 40% say the charge would not change how often they buy drinks, and 8% expect they would buy more. In contrast, 28% report they would buy fewer takeaway drinks, and 17% say they would stop buying drinks in takeaway cups altogether. This means roughly 48% anticipate maintaining or increasing their purchasing frequency, while 45% expect to reduce or stop it, indicating a fairly balanced set of behavioural intentions, though these are self‑reported and may not directly reflect actual behaviour.

Overview

This research examines the key factors that affect consumer willingness and ability to engage in specific circular economy measures such as repairing and recycling and how barriers to engagement differ across different consumer groups. Based on the findings of this research we make recommendations on how to tackle the barriers to repair and recycling that consumers in Scotland currently experience.

This report has highlighted the strong role that convenience plays in consumer ability and willingness to engage in circular economy measures.

Supporting consumers to understand the changes that are required of them and putting the right mechanisms in place to enable them to make these changes is critical to the development of a circular economy in Scotland. By actively addressing the key barriers to consumer willingness and ability to engage policymakers can maximise the reach and impact of circular measures.

Based on the findings of this research, we set out below a range of key actions and priorities that will be required to facilitate increased consumer engagement in the transition to a circular economy. These actions are focused on six key themes:

• Moving action further up the waste hierarchy, beyond well-established behaviours and focusing on more challenging materials
• Strengthening consumer knowledge and understanding and engagement through targeted information provision and communication
• Delivering equitable access to recycling and repair facilities for consumers across Scotland, taking into account demographic considerations
• Providing targeted support for small businesses to increase the availability and improve viability of repair facilities
• Delivering a deposit return scheme that is clear, convenient and accessible for consumers
• Ensuring that any charge on single-use cups fully considers the impact on consumers, including those in vulnerable circumstances

Moving action further up the waste hierarchy

This research shows that recycling is the dominant consumer behaviour for all material types and is particularly common for items that are straightforward to recycle at home.

Policy measures must now focus on moving beyond well-established recycling behaviours, towards supporting increased levels of reuse and repair, enabling consumers to move their actions further up the waste hierarchy. The design of these policy measures must address common barriers to repair, reuse and recycling, making it as straightforward as possible for consumers to understand their role and make sustained changes to behaviour.

Consumer Scotland’s Climate Change policymakers toolkit identified Cost, Convenience, Clarity, and Confidence (the 4 Cs) as the key issues when considering the role of consumers in the transition to a more sustainable future.[50] Our research here identifies cost and convenience as particularly key to increase consumer engagement with the transition to a circular economy. We recommend that policymakers should utilise Consumer Scotland’s policymakers toolkit to assess the impact of circular economy policies on consumers, including those in vulnerable circumstances, and ensure that the barriers the consumer participation are fully considered and addressed.

Supporting consumer understanding and engagement

Our research found that not knowing where or how to recycle or repair items is a key barriers to consumer engagement. Consumers must be able to understand what can be repaired and recycled and where they are able to do this if engagement with these behaviours is to increase.

The Scottish Government should work with stakeholders including Circular Communities Scotland to increase consumer awareness of how and where to recycle materials such as small electricals and clothing and textiles

We recommend that the Scottish Government delivers a targeted consumer behaviour change campaign by mid 2027, focussing on materials which are currently more likely to be incorrectly disposed of via landfill. This campaign should focus on the provision of clear information about:

• the benefits of repair and reuse practices, such as saving money and supporting the local economy
• the availability of repair, reuse and recycling facilities for these items
• correct disposal options for items such as single-use cups, textiles and electrical items

This will help to avoid contamination of recycling streams or items being unnecessarily landfilled.

The Scottish Government should also consider whether there are actions which would improve consumer confidence in reuse and repair practices. Our research suggests that a lack of confidence in the quality of repairs is currently affecting consumer participation in repair and reuse practices.

Repair businesses must provide clear information about products and services and the develop effective redress measures for where things go wrong, if they are to compete with more traditional linear business models.

Consumer Scotland recommends that the Scottish Government should put in place measures to:

encourage repair businesses to provide consumers with a warranty on repaired items to encourage consumer confidence in and use of these services

raise consumer awareness of their rights across these new and emerging markets

Ensuring equitable access to recycling and repair facilities

Our research found that access to suitable local facilities is a key barrier to consumers recycling. A lack, or perceived lack, of suitable local service or facility is the most frequently reported barrier to recycling most materials covered by this research. In order to facilitate moving action further up the waste hierarchy, all consumers across Scotland should have access to repair, reuse and recycling options that work for them.

Measures must take into account the range of different geographical and community needs that local authorities and residents across Scotland encounter. For example, there will be different considerations and needs for an urban area with tenement or flatted properties compared to a sparsely populated rural area.

The Scottish Government should act to ensure that repair, reuse and recycling facilities are accessible and available for consumers across Scotland.  We recommend that the Scottish Government works with partners such as local authorities, consumer bodies and Zero Waste Scotland to:

• Assess where repair and recycling facilities are currently unavailable or sparsely provided and consider allocating local or national funding streams to support the startup or scaling up of services to fill these gaps
• Promote available repair and recycling facilities, through targeted information or public awareness campaigns to raise awareness as part of wider net zero communications work. This campaign should include a focus on actions that will help to support these behaviours becoming ingrained with young people.
• Identify a range of measures to increase availability of recycling infrastructure so support increased consumer engagement. This could include expanding materials collected at kerbside and increasing provision of hubs at local recycling facilities or in community centres such as libraries or other municipal buildings
• Develop and implement the upcoming Code of Practice on household recycling by the end of 2026 in a way that meets the diverse needs of consumers in a range of circumstances, such as those living in flats and those in rural areas
• Address the disparities in food waste collection through:

• The review of the rural food waste exemption during 2026, with revised collections in place by the end of 2027
• The intervention plan on household food waste reduction behaviour change, detailed in the Circular Economy and Waste Routemap, which should be delivered by the end of 2027

When considering solutions for remote and rural areas, the Scottish Government must take into account the significant transportation and infrastructure challenges faced by rural and island communities in relation to waste collection and processing. It will be important to ensure that the carbon impact of collecting and processing materials is proportionate to the savings achieved.

Increasing availability and improving viability of repair facilities

Successfully increasing the number, and geographic coverage, of repair businesses will be key to supporting consumer take-up of these practices. Action should focus on effectively tackling the barriers that exist to consumer participation, including issues around the convenience and cost-effectiveness of repairs.

We recommend that the Scottish Government works with stakeholders such as Circular Communities Scotland to provide targeted small business development support to repair businesses. Supporting these businesses to provide consumers with a service that is accessible, reliable and good value for money will be crucial in encouraging consumers to use these services. This targeted support should include facilitating peer learning, financial support to scale up and dedicated business development and marketing advice for such businesses.  

Policy proposals should also consider how consumers can be supported to develop repair skills, for example by supporting businesses to run workshops to develop consumer repair skills and confidence or to consider developing resources for use in schools and other community settings. The Scottish Government should work with partners, including Zero Waste Scotland and Circular Communities Scotland, to develop resources to support increasing repair skills.

Implementing a successful deposit return scheme

The final deposit return scheme must be designed in a way that addresses consumer priorities and barriers to take-up. This research found that scenarios that minimise additional effort, such as close proximity of return points or the ability to return containers as part of regular trips, are associated with higher stated engagement, while time, effort and uncertainty are the main deterrents.

We recommend that the design of the DRS scheme maintains a clear focus on making access as convenient as possible and ensuring that and the information surrounding its use is clear and consistent.

When implementing the scheme, including developing any exemptions and supporting communication materials, the Scottish Government must engage with Exchange for Change to ensure that it reflects the needs and priorities of consumers. To maximise take-up the scheme must incorporate:

• Ease and speed of return of materials, including addressing opening hours and wait times
• The ability to integrate returning containers into everyday consumer routines such as shopping and commuting
• Certainty for consumers about scheme rules, including provision of clear and consistent messaging

Taking action on single-use cups

This research found that the introduction of a 20p charge for a single-use cup is likely to have some impact on consumer purchasing behaviours, with around 45% of consumers in Scotland expecting to reduce or stop purchasing drinks as a result of the charge. Where environmental charges are implemented for problematic single-use products, it is important to ensure that the impact on consumers is fully considered.

If the Scottish Government proceeds with implementing a charge on single-use cups, we recommend that the impact on consumers in vulnerable circumstances is fully considered through robust stakeholder engagement and impact assessments, to ensure that those who are least able to pay are not disproportionately impacted. Any charge introduced should be trialled before being fully rolled out across Scotland in order to gain insight on consumer experiences and barriers. This trialling should include both urban and rural elements and should include a focus on the experiences of consumers in vulnerable circumstances, particularly disabled consumers and those on low incomes.

Any policy measures implemented must ensure consumer awareness about appropriate disposal of cups and support businesses to understand the requirements on them, giving them time to adjust.

This research has identified that there is potential consumer misunderstanding around the current ability for single-use cups to be appropriately recycled.  We recommend that the Scottish Government works with industry and other partners to provide consumers, and businesses, with clear and consistent messaging about the appropriate disposal of single-use cups.

It is important to acknowledge that a charge on single-use cups would form only one part of the solution. The Scottish Government should also use other methods to take action on single-use cups, including:

Working with manufacturers to drive improvements in materials used for single-use cups

Facilitating greater consumer awareness about the impact of single-use cups and reduction in consumption through sustained behaviour change campaigns

Supporting further development and trials of cup hire and take back schemes at both a local and national to reduce the use of single-use cups.